A fascinating history of the USA from the time of the Amerindians to the culturally diverse but united country of today.
CONTENTS
A NEW WORLD
1 The, first Americans 2 Explorers from Europe 3 Virginian beginnings 4 Puritan New England 5 Colonial life in America 6 The roots of revolution 7 Fighting for independence
A NEW NATION
8 Forming the, new nation
9 Years of growth
10 West to the Pacific
11 North and South
12 The civil War
13 Reconsrruction
YEARS OF GROWTH 14 Miners, railroads and cattlemen 15 Farming; the Great Plains 16 The Amerindians' last stand 17 Inventors and industries 18 The Golden Door 19 Reformers and progressives SO 20 An American empire
Twentieth Century Americans 21 A war and a peace 22 The Roaring Twenties 23 Crash and depression 24 Roosevelt's New Deal 25 The Arsenal of Democracy 26 Prosperity and problems 27 Black Americans
Superpower 28 Cold War and Korea 29 A balance of terror 30 The Vietnam years 31 America's back yard 32 An end to Cold War? 33 The American Century
Who is this book for?
This book is aimed at researchers in any discipline who wish to write a research
paper in English. If your first language is not English, you should find this book
particularly useful.
Who else will benefit from reading this book?
Proofreaders, those who work for editing services, referees, journal editors and
EFL, ESL and EAP trainers should also find this book useful. I hope to be able to
show you the reasons why the English of non-native speakers often does not com-
ply with the standards of international journals. Knowing these reasons should then
help you to give advice to authors on how to improve their manuscripts, and stu-
dents on how to improve their writing in general. It should also help you understand
the difficulties that non-natives have when writing in English.
Finally, if you are a tutor, supervisor or professor of any nationality, I hope that
you will use this book as a resource to help your students improve their scientific
writing skills. I imagine that you are generally able to identify the errors in writing
made by your students, but you may not have the time or knowledge to explain how
to rectify such mistakes.
READ THIS BOOK AT THE END OF THIS POST
Contents The symbol # indicates that inexperienced writers should pay particular attention to this subsection. Part I Writing Skills 1 Planning and Preparation ........................................................................ 3 1.1 Think about why you want to publish your research #.................... 5 1.2 Give yourself enough time to plan and write your manuscript #..... 5 1.3 Choose an appropriate journal, preferably with a high impact factor .................................................................................... 5 1.4 Download the instructions for authors from your chosen journal AND from a high impact journal in the same field #.......... 6 1.5 Read and analyze papers for your literature review, and note how they are structured ..................................................... 7 1.6 Identify what the editor is looking for ............................................. 8 1.7 Choose one paper as a model and note down useful phrases #........ 9 1.8 Think about the order in which to write the various sections # ....... 9 1.9 Create separate files for each section............................................... 10 1.10 Chat with non experts # ................................................................... 11 1.11 Give mini presentations to colleagues ............................................. 11 1.12 Decide what your key findings are and whether you really have a contribution to make # ......................................... 11 1.13 For each section, think about how you can highlight your key findings #........................................................................... 12 1.14 Always have the referees in mind # ................................................. 13 1.15 Referees and English level............................................................... 14 1.16 How to keep the referees happy....................................................... 14 1.17 Write directly in English and find ways to improve your writing skills #....................................................... 15 1.18 Consult online resources #............................................................... 16 1.19 Summary .......................................................................................... 17 literaculitera.blogspot.comxiv Contents 2 Word Order ............................................................................................... 19 2.1 Basic word order in English #.......................................................... 21 2.2 Compare word order in your language with word order in English ......................................................................................... 21 2.3 Choose the most relevant subject and put it at the beginning of the sentence #............................................................................... 22 2.4 Choose the subject that leads to the most concise sentence............. 23 2.5 Don’t make the impersonal it the subject of the sentence................ 23 2.6 Don’t use a pronoun (it, they) before you introduce the noun (i.e. the subject of the sentence) that the pronoun refers to ................................................................. 23 2.7 Put the subject before the verb #...................................................... 24 2.8 Keep the subject and verb as close as possible to each other #........ 24 2.9 Avoid inserting parenthetical information between the subject and the verb #................................................................. 25 2.10 Don’t separate the verb from its direct object #............................... 26 2.11 Put the direct object before the indirect object # ............................. 26 2.12 How to choose where to locate an adverb........................................ 27 2.13 Put adjectives before the noun they describe, or use a relative clause # .................................................................. 29 2.14 Do not insert an adjective between two nouns or before the wrong noun #.............................................................. 29 2.15 Avoid creating strings of nouns that describe other nouns # ........... 30 2.16 Ensure there is no ambiguity in the order of the words # ................ 30 2.17 Summary .......................................................................................... 32 3 Breaking Up Long Sentences ................................................................... 33 3.1 Think above all about the reader #................................................... 35 3.2 The longer your sentence, the greater the chance it will be misunderstood # ............................................................................... 35 3.3 Short sentences are not a sign of inelegance and superficiality......... 36 3.4 Why and how long sentences are created # ..................................... 37 3.5 and #................................................................................................. 38 3.6 as well as.......................................................................................... 40 3.7 Other link words that introduce additional information: moreover, in addition, furthermore .................................................. 40 3.8 Link words that compare and contrast: whereas, on the other hand; although, however.............................. 41 3.9 Link words that give explanations: because, since, as, in fact ........... 42 3.10 Link words that express consequences: owing to, due to, as a result of, consequently, thus etc. ................................... 42 3.11 which and relative clauses #............................................................. 43 3.12 - ing form ......................................................................................... 45 3.13 in order to......................................................................................... 46 3.14 Excessive numbers of commas # ..................................................... 47 3.15 Semicolons....................................................................................... 48 3.16 Semicolons in lists ........................................................................... 49 3.17 Phrases in parentheses...................................................................... 50 3.18 Summary .......................................................................................... 51 4 Structuring Paragraphs and Sentences .................................................. 53 4.1 The key to good writing: always think about the reader #............... 55 4.2 General structure of a paragraph #................................................... 56 4.3 How to structure a paragraph: an example #.................................... 57 4.4 First paragraph of a new section - begin with a mini summary plus an indication of the structure......................... 59 4.5 First paragraph of a new section - go directly to the point .............. 60 4.6 Deciding where to put new and old information within a paragraph #......................................................................... 61 4.7 Deciding where to put new and old information within a sentence #........................................................................... 63 4.8 Link each sentence by moving from general concepts to increasingly more specific concepts............................. 64 4.9 Present and explain ideas in the same (logical) sequence................ 65 4.10 Don’t force the reader to have to change their perspective.............. 67 4.11 Use a consistent numbering system to list phases, states, parts etc. ................................................................................ 68 4.12 Begin a new paragraph when you talk about your study and your key findings #.......................................................... 68 4.13 Break up long paragraphs # ............................................................. 69 4.14 Look for the markers that indicate where you could begin a new sentence #..................................................................... 70 4.15 Concluding a paragraph: avoid redundancy..................................... 714.16 Summary .......................................................................................... 72 5 Being Concise and Removing Redundancy ............................................ 73 5.1 Cut, cut and then cut again #............................................................ 75 5.2 Write less, make less mistakes #...................................................... 75 5.3 Cut redundant words # ..................................................................... 76 5.4 Prefer verbs to nouns #..................................................................... 77 5.5 Use one verb (e.g. analyze) instead of a verb + noun (e.g. make an analysis) #.................................................................. 77 5.6 Reduce the number of link words .................................................... 78 5.7 Choose the shortest words ............................................................... 79 5.8 Choose the shortest expressions....................................................... 80 5.9 Use the shortest adverbial expression .............................................. 81 5.10 Avoid pointless introductory phrases............................................... 81 5.11 Avoid impersonal expressions.......................................................... 82 5.12 Reduce your authorial voice ............................................................ 83 5.13 Be concise when referring to figures and tables.............................. 83 5.14 Use the infinitive when expressing an aim....................................... 84 5.15 Redundancy versus Conciseness: an example ................................. 84 5.16 Constantly ask yourself - does what I am writing add value for the reader?.................................................................. 86 5.17 Summary .......................................................................................... 87 6 Avoiding Ambiguity and Vagueness ........................................................ 89 6.1 which / who vs. that # ...................................................................... 91 6.2 which, that and who # ...................................................................... 92 6.3 -ing form vs. that #........................................................................... 92 6.4 - ing form vs. subject + verb # ......................................................... 93 6.5 - ing form with by and thus # ........................................................... 94 6.6 a, one and the # ................................................................................ 95 6.7 Uncountable nouns........................................................................... 96 6.8 Pronouns # ....................................................................................... 97 6.9 Referring backwards: the former, the latter ..................................... 99 6.10 above and below............................................................................... 100 6.11 Use of respectively to disambiguate................................................. 100 6.12 and #................................................................................................. 101 6.13 both … and, either … or .................................................................. 101 6.14 False friends ..................................................................................... 102 6.15 Latin words - i.e. versus e.g. ............................................................ 102 6.16 Monologophobia - the constant search for synonyms # .................. 103 6.17 Be as precise as possible # ............................................................... 104 6.18 Choose the least generic word ......................................................... 106 6.19 Summary .......................................................................................... 107 7 Clarifying Who Did What........................................................................ 109 7.1 Check your journal’s style - first person or passive #...................... 111 7.2 How to form the passive and when to use it # ................................. 111 7.3 Ensure you use the right tenses to differentiate your work from others, particularly when your journal prohibits the use of we..................................................................................... 112 7.4 For journals that allow personal forms, use we to distinguish yourself from other authors ........................... 114 7.5 Do not use we to explain your thought process ............................... 115 7.6 When we is acceptable, even when you are not distinguishing yourself from other authors...................................... 115 7.7 Make good use of references # ........................................................ 116 7.8 Ensure that readers understand what you mean when you write the authors #........................................................... 117 7.9 Use short paragraphs #..................................................................... 118 7.10 Make logical connections between other authors’ findings and yours #......................................................................... 118 7.11 Summary .......................................................................................... 119 8 Highlighting Your Findings...................................................................... 121 8.1 Ensure that referees can find and understand the importance of your contribution #.............................................. 123 8.2 Help your findings to stand out visually on the page by beginning a new paragraph #................................... 123 8.3 Make your sentences shorter than normal ....................................... 124 8.4 Present your key findings in a very short sentence and list the implications ................................................................... 125 8.5 Consider using bullets and headings................................................ 126 8.6 Use tables and figures to attract attention........................................ 127 8.7 Signal to the reader that you are about to say something important by using more dynamic language.................................... 127 8.8 Only use specific terms when describing your key findings #......... 128 8.9 Avoid flat phrases when discussing key findings #.......................... 128 8.10 Be explicit about your findings, so that even a non-expert can understand them ........................................................................ 129 8.11 Convincing readers to believe your interpretation of your data ...................................................................................... 130 8.12 Show your paper to a non-expert and get him / her to underline your key findings......................................................... 131 8.13 Beware of overstating your project’s achievements and significance................................................................................ 132 8.14 Summary .......................................................................................... 132 9 Hedging and Criticising............................................................................ 133 9.1 Why and when to hedge #................................................................ 135 9.2 Highlighting and hedging ................................................................ 137 9.3 Toning down verbs........................................................................... 138 9.4 Toning down adjectives and adverbs................................................ 138 9.5 Toning down strong claims by inserting adverbs............................. 139 9.6 Toning down the level of probability ............................................... 140 9.7 Anticipating alternative interpretations of your data ....................... 141 9.8 Telling the reader from what standpoint you wish them to view your data ............................................................ 142 9.9 Dealing with the limitations of your research.................................. 143 9.10 Saving your own face: revealing and obscuring your identity as the author in humanist subjects.............................. 144 9.11 Saving other author’s faces: put their research in a positive light.............................................................................. 145 9.12 Saving other author’s faces: say their findings are open to another interpretation .................................................... 146 9.13 Don’t overhedge............................................................................... 146 9.14 Hedging: An extended example from a Discussion section ............ 147 9.15 Summary .......................................................................................... 149 10 Paraphrasing and Plagiarism ................................................................ 151 10.1 Plagiarism is not difficult to spot # .............................................. 153 10.2 You can copy generic phrases # ................................................... 153 10.3 How to quote directly from other papers ..................................... 154 10.4 How to quote from another paper by paraphrasing #................... 155 10.5 Examples of how and how not to paraphrase #............................ 157 10.6 Paraphrasing the work of a third author....................................... 158 10.7 How to check whether you have inadvertently committed plagiarism................................................................... 158 10.8 Summary...................................................................................... 159 Part II Sections of a Paper 11 Titles ......................................................................................................... 163 11.1 How can I generate a title? #........................................................ 165 11.2 How can I make my title more dynamic? .................................... 165 11.3 Can I use my title to make a claim?............................................. 166 11.4 Are questions in titles a good way to attract attention? ............... 166 11.5 When is a two-part title a good idea?........................................... 167 11.6 How should I punctuate my title? ................................................ 167 11.7 What words should I capitalize? .................................................. 167 11.8 What types of words should I try to include? .............................. 168 11.9 What other criteria should I use to decide whether to include certain words or not?................................................... 168 11.10 Will adjectives such as innovative and novel attract attention?........................................................................... 169 11.11 How can I make my title shorter? ................................................ 170 11.12 Is it a good idea to make my title concise by having a string of nouns? # ...................................................................... 170 11.13 Should I use prepositions? # ........................................................ 172 11.14 Are articles (a / an, the) necessary? # .......................................... 172 11.15 How do I know whether to use a or an? ...................................... 174 11.16 Is using an automatic spell check enough? # ............................... 175 11.17 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my title? # ................ 176 12 Abstracts .................................................................................................. 177 12.1 What is an abstract? How long should it be? # ............................ 179 12.2 When should I write the Abstract?............................................... 179 12.3 How should I structure my Abstract? # ....................................... 180 12.4 Formal, natural and applied sciences. How should I structure my abstract? How much background information? ............................................................. 180 12.5 Social and behavioral sciences. How should I structure my abstract? How much background information? ..................... 181 12.6 I am a historian. We don’t necessarily get ‘results’ or follow a specific methodology. What should I do? ................. 182 12.7 I am writing a review. How should I structure my Abstract? ................................................................................ 183 12.8 How should I begin my Abstract?................................................ 184 12.9 What style should I use: personal or impersonal? ....................... 185 12.10 What tenses should I use? ............................................................ 186 12.11 How do I write a structured abstract? .......................................... 187 12.12 How do I write an abstract for a conference? .............................. 188 12.13 How do I write an abstract for a work in progress that will be presented at a conference? ........................................ 189 12.14 How should I select my key words? How often should I repeat them?............................................................................... 190 12.15 Should I mention any limitations in my research?....................... 190 12.16 What should I not mention in my Abstract? ................................ 191 12.17 How can I ensure that my Abstract has maximum impact?......... 191 12.18 What are some of the typical characteristics of poor abstracts? # ...................................................................... 191 12.19 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Abstract? #......... 193 13 Introduction............................................................................................. 195 13.1 How should I structure the Introduction? # ................................. 197 13.2 How should I begin my Introduction? # ...................................... 197 13.3 How should I structure the rest of the Introduction? # ................ 199 13.4 I do not work in the field of a ‘hard’ science. Are there any other ways of beginning an Introduction?............. 200 13.5 What typical phrases should I avoid in my Introduction?............ 201 13.6 How does an Introduction differ from an Abstract? .................... 201 13.7 What tenses should I use? # ......................................................... 203 13.8 How should I outline the structure of my paper?......................... 204 13.9 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Introduction? #................................................................... 205 14 Review of the Literature......................................................................... 207 14.1 How should I structure my Review of the Literature? # .............. 209 14.2 How should I begin my literature review? How can I structure it to show the progress through the years? # ..................................................................... 209 14.3 What is the clearest way to refer to other authors? Should I focus on the authors or their ideas? #............................ 210 14.4 What tenses should I use? # ......................................................... 211 14.5 How can I reduce the amount I write when reporting the literature? ............................................................................... 213 14.6 How can I talk about the limitations of previous work and the novelty of my work in a constructive and diplomatic way? .................................................................... 214 14.7 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Literature Review? #.......................................................... 215 literaculitera.blogspot.comxx Contents 15 Methods.................................................................................................... 217 15.1 How should I structure the Methods? # ....................................... 219 15.2 How should I begin the Methods? # ............................................ 219 15.3 What tense should I use? Should I use the active or passive? #................................................................................. 220 15.4 How many actions can I refer to in a single sentence? # ............. 221 15.5 How can I avoid my Methods appearing like a series of lists? ............................................................................ 222 15.6 Can I use bullets? ......................................................................... 223 15.7 How can I reduce the word count?............................................... 223 15.8 How should I designate my study parameters in a way that my readers do not have to constantly refer backwards? .......................................................................... 223 15.9 Should I describe everything in chronological order? ................. 224 15.10 What grammatical constructions can I use to justify my aims and choices? .................................................................. 225 15.11 What grammatical construction is used with allow, enable and permit? #.................................................................... 225 15.12 How can I indicate the consequences of my choices and actions?..................................................................... 227 15.13 How should I use the definite and indefinite articles in the Methods?............................................................................ 227 15.14 Should I write numbers as digits (e.g. 5, 7) or as words (e.g. five, seven)? ......................................................................... 228 15.15 How can I avoid ambiguity? ........................................................ 229 15.16 What other points should I include in the Methods? How should I end the Methods? # ............................................... 230 15.17 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Methods section? # ............................................................ 231 16 Results ...................................................................................................... 233 16.1 How should I structure the Results? # ......................................... 235 16.2 How should I begin the Results? #............................................... 235 16.3 How should I structure the rest of the Results? How should I end the Results? #.................................................. 235 16.4 Should I report any negative results? # ........................................ 236 16.5 What tenses should I use when reporting my Results? #............. 236 16.6 What style should I use when reporting my Results? # ............... 237 16.7 Can I use a more personal style?.................................................. 238 16.8 How can I show my readers the value of my data, rather than just telling them?........................................................ 238 16.9 How should I comment on my tables and figures? ...................... 239 16.10 What is the difference between reporting and interpreting? ........ 240 16.11 How can I make it clear that I am talking about my findings and not the findings of others? #.............................. 241 16.12 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Results section? # .............................................................. 242 17 Discussion................................................................................................. 243 17.1 How should I structure the Discussion? #.................................... 245 17.2 How should I begin the Discussion? #......................................... 246 17.3 Why should I compare my work with that of others? #............... 246 17.4 How should I compare my work with that of others? #............... 247 17.5 How should I end the Discussion if I do have a Conclusions section?................................................................. 249 17.6 How should I end the Discussion if I do not have a Conclusions section? ........................................................ 250 17.7 Active or passive? What kind of writing style should I use? # .... 250 17.8 How can I give my interpretation of my data while taking into account other possible interpretations that I do not agree with?............................................................... 251 17.9 How can I bring a little excitement to my Discussion? ............... 252 17.10 How can I use seems and appears to admit that I have not investigated all possible cases? .............................................. 254 17.11 How can I show the pitfalls of other works in the literature? ........................................................................... 254 17.12 How should I discuss the limitations of my research? #.............. 254 17.13 What other ways are there to lessen the negative impact of the limitations of my study? ........................................ 256 17.14 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Discussion?........................................................................ 257 18 Conclusions.............................................................................................. 259 18.1 How should I structure the Conclusions? # ................................. 261 18.2 How should I begin my Conclusions? How can I increase the impact of my Conclusions? # ................. 262 18.3 How can I differentiate my Conclusions from my Abstract? ....................................................................... 263 18.4 How can I differentiate my Conclusions from my Introduction and from the last paragraph of my Discussion?........................................................................ 265 18.5 I don’t have any clear Conclusions, what can I do?..................... 265 18.6 How can I end my Conclusions? #............................................... 266 18.7 What tenses should I use? ............................................................ 268 18.8 Summary: How can I assess the quality of my Conclusions? #................................................................... 269 19 Useful Phrases ......................................................................................... 271 19.1 Index of Useful Phrases # ............................................................ 273 19.2 How to use the Useful Phrases #.................................................. 274 20 The Final Check ...................................................................................... 295 20.1 Ensure your paper is as good as it could possibly be the first time you submit it # ................................................... 297 20.2 Print out your paper. Don’t just correct it directly on your computer # ...................................................................... 297 literaculitera.blogspot.comxxii Contents 20.3 Always have the referee in mind #............................................... 297 20.4 Anticipate referees’ comments on your English #....................... 298 20.5 Judge your writing in English in the same way as you would judge it if you had written the paper in your native language ................................................................ 300 20.6 Cut, cut, cut and keep cutting #.................................................... 301 20.7 Check your paper for readability ................................................. 302 20.8 Check for clarity in the logical order of your argumentation............................................................................... 303 20.9 Do a ‘quality control’ on your paper............................................ 303 20.10 Be careful with cut and pastes ..................................................... 303 20.11 Double check that you have followed the journal’s style guide # ................................................................................. 304 20.12 Make sure that everything is completely accurate # .................... 304 20.13 Make sure everything is consistent # ........................................... 304 20.14 Dealing with rejections ................................................................ 305 20.15 Take editorial comments seriously............................................... 306 20.16 Consider using a professional editing service #........................... 306 20.17 Don’t forget the Acknowledgements ........................................... 306 20.18 Write a good letter / email to accompany your manuscript ........................................................................... 307 20.19 Final check: spelling. Don’t underestimate the importance of spelling mistakes #.......................................... 307 20.20 Summary #................................................................................... 308 Links and References...................................................................................... 309 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... 315 About the Author ............................................................................................ 317 Contact the Author ......................................................................................... 319 Index................................................................................................................. 321
Ap English Literature & Composition For Dummies prepares you for — you guessed it —
the AP Literature and Composition Exam (not to be confused with the AP English
Language and Composition exam, which covers all-purpose, general writing on current
events, personal experience, and culture). This exam is a product of the College Board,
a not-for-profit outfit based in Princeton, New Jersey. The College Board is the group of edu-
cators and educational institutions that administers the SAT, the PSAT/NMSQT, and other
laugh-a-minute hurdles that you face before entering college. “AP” stands for “advanced
placement,” which means that anyone passing the exam has demonstrated college-level
achievement before actually entering an ivy-covered building. In other words, the AP label
is for serious brainwork.
Did I scare you? Calm down. AP material is tough, but it’s also teachable. You don’t have to
be a natural-born literary genius to score well on the AP English exam. You just have to
scrape the rust off your thinking cap and do some of the exercises in this book. In fact, you
don’t even have to go through all the exercises. (You’ll still have some time to download
some music and chat with your friends.) After you get acquainted with the AP exam format
and brush up on your reading and writing skills, you can score big on the AP English
Literature and Composition exam.
After a quick overview of the exam and a crash course on timelines and strategies for test
preparation, this book hits each of the genres (types) of literature covered on the exam.
Within each genre, I review the basic elements and tell you what to look for when you’re read-
ing. I also show you how to keep track of what you found — important events, characters,
themes, and elements of style. To improve your literary skills — and grades! — even more,
I detail the easiest strategies for writing an essay about poetry, prose, and dramatic works.
Contents at a Glance Introduction.................................................................................1 Part I: Hamlet Hits the Answer Grid: An Overview of the AP Lit Exam and Prep .............................................................7 Chapter 1: Flying Over the AP Lit Exam: An Overview............................................................................9 Chapter 2: “The Readiness Is All”: Preparing for the Exam ..................................................................21 Chapter 3: Getting the Most Out of English Class ..................................................................................31 Part II: Poetry in Motion.............................................................53 Chapter 4: Sorting Out Poetic Devices ....................................................................................................55 Chapter 5: Unraveling Poetic Meaning ....................................................................................................67 Chapter 6: Acing Multiple-Choice Poetry Questions .............................................................................77 Chapter 7: Mastering Essay Questions on Poetic Passages..................................................................89 Chapter 8: Flexing Your Poetry Muscles: Practice Questions ............................................................101 Part III: Getting the Story from Prose and Drama .......................121 Chapter 9: Reading Fiction and Drama Passages .................................................................................123 Chapter 10: . . . And Nothing but the Truth: Reading Nonfiction Passages ......................................141 Chapter 11: Conquering Multiple-Choice Prose and Drama Questions ............................................151 Chapter 12: Writing Stellar Essays on Prose and Drama Passages....................................................165 Chapter 13: Practice Makes Perfect: Prose and Drama Questions ....................................................179 Part IV: Paired Passages and the Open-Ended Essay...................203 Chapter 14: Free at Last: The Open-Ended Essay ................................................................................205 Chapter 15: Double Trouble: Paired-Passage Essays...........................................................................219 Part V: Dress Rehearsal: Practice Exams ....................................235 Chapter 16: Killing Three Perfectly Innocent Hours: Practice Exam 1 ..............................................239 Chapter 17: The Moment of Truth: Scoring Practice Exam 1 .............................................................253 Chapter 18: Spoiling Three More Hours: Practice Exam 2 ..................................................................279 Chapter 19: Checking In: Scoring Practice Exam 2...............................................................................295 Part VI: The Part of Tens...........................................................317 Chapter 20: Ten Mistakes That Kill Your Essay Score .........................................................................319 Chapter 21: Ten Ways to Increase Your Know-How Without Studying..............................................325 Part VII: Appendixes.................................................................331 Appendix A: Literary Works....................................................................................................................333 Appendix B: Quick Grammar Review.....................................................................................................339 Index.......................................................................................347
Perhaps the best way to start appreciating early English literature is to not think of it as literature at all. The earliest stories in the English language were not written for academic study but as an extension of the oral tradition of relating grand and fanciful tales for entertainment.
These stories, then, were the blockbuster summer movies of their day--tales of adventure and romance, with brave knights, beautiful women, horrible monsters, and mysterious spirits.
Over the centuries these stories became a part of English literature, and along the way, the gripping manner in which they were told made the leap from word of mouth to the page. This book will show how that transition was made as it takes you on a journey through time and literary development.
To study English literature from the Old English period to the Renaissance is to witness the movement from one-dimensional action stories and religious lessons to stories with more subtleties of plot and character development and the development of language usage from simple conventions to new uses of sound and meaning. In short, this period began the rich tradition of English literature that continues to grow today.
The Grammar Practice Book includes study tips to help with common grammatical problems Exam style exercises and progress tests keep students focussed on the demands of the CAE exam
